These terms are taken from the Artefact textbook.
This work was compiled by a 1st Year History class.
Click here to have the dictionary read to you (Chrome).
A.
Abdication crisis: A constitutional disturbance
occurring due to King Edward VIII's decision to abdicate the throne in 1936.
His desire to marry Wallis Simpson, who had two prior divorces, created a
controversy as it was deemed incompatible with his position as head of the
Anglican Church and as the reigning monarch.
Absenteeism: The practice observed among priests and
bishops during the pre-Reformation period, where they habitually stayed away or
were absent for prolonged periods from their assigned parishes or dioceses.
Absolute monarchy: A form of government where a king
or queen holds absolute and total power over their kingdom, often claiming a
divine right to rule without being subjected to constitutional limitations or
checks on their authority.
Accuracy: The assessment or evaluation of the
correctness and precision of historical information, measuring how closely it
aligns with factual reality.
Aerial photography: The process of capturing
photographs from an elevated position, such as using aircraft, drones, or
helicopters. In historical study, these photographs are utilized by
archaeologists to identify potential areas of interest, such as detecting
anomalies in landscapes that might indicate the presence of ancient structures
or buildings.
Alamein, Battle of: A significant conflict during
World War II in the North African campaign where the British 8th Army, under
General Montgomery's leadership, launched a successful offensive against the
Axis forces led by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. The battle resulted in the Axis
retreat into Tunisia and their expulsion from North Africa by May 1943.
Alliance: A formal agreement or pact between states
or nations, established to provide mutual aid and support, particularly during
times of war or conflict.
Allies: The collective term used to denote the group
of nations that fought against the Central Powers during World War I and the
Axis Powers during World War II.
Amphitheatre: Large, often circular or oval-shaped
arenas used for various events, including gladiatorial games and other forms of
entertainment in ancient times.
Anatomy: The scientific study of the structure and
composition of the human body, often employed by artists, like Leonardo da
Vinci, to enhance the realism and accuracy of their artistic works.
Anglicisation: The process of spreading or
assimilating English culture, customs, or language into other regions or
territories, often seen historically in Ireland.
Anglo-Irish: Descendants of Norman conquerors in
Ireland who eventually assimilated many Irish customs, including language and
traditions, through intermarriage with prominent Gaelic families.
Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921: An agreement signed on
December 6th, 1921, that formally established the Irish Free State, marking a
significant step towards Irish independence from British rule.
Anschluss: The term used to describe the annexation
or joining together of Germany and Austria, an action taken by Nazi Germany in
1938.
Anti-Comintern Pact: An agreement signed in November
1936 between Germany and Japan, with subsequent signatories including Italy,
Hungary, Spain, and the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo in 1939. The pact
aimed to unite against communism.
Anti-Semitism: Hostility, discrimination, or
prejudice directed against Jewish people based on their ethnicity, religion, or
cultural identity.
Appeasement: The policy of conceding to the demands
of a hostile power, notably associated with the attempts to pacify Adolf
Hitler's ambitions in the prelude to World War II, which ultimately proved
unsuccessful.
Archive: A designated place or repository where a
collection of historical records, documents, manuscripts, or other sources are
cataloged, stored, and preserved for research or reference purposes.
Arms Race: A competitive pursuit, typically between
superpowers or nations, involving research, development, and accumulation of
increasingly powerful and sophisticated weapons, particularly nuclear arms,
capable of massive destruction.
Autobiography: A written account or narrative of a
person's life, experiences, and events, authored by that individual.
Aryans: A term appropriated by the Nazis to describe
their perceived superior race, often referencing Germans and other Nordic
people as the supposed "master race."
Atlantic, Battle of: A strategic campaign waged
during World War II involving air and naval forces in a bid for control over
Atlantic sea routes. The Germans attempted to weaken British supply lines
through U-boat attacks on merchant shipping.
Atlantic Charter: A joint declaration of peace aims
issued by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill in August 1941
during World War II. It advocated for the right of nations to choose their own
form of government, laying down principles for the post-war world.
Augsburg, Peace of: An agreement reached in 1555 by
the diet of the Holy Roman Empire, resolving conflicts between the Roman
Catholic Church and the Lutheran church in Germany. It granted each prince the
authority to determine the religion of the land they governed.
Augsburg, Confession of: A summary of Lutheran
beliefs presented to Emperor Charles V during the diet of Augsburg in 1530,
establishing and outlining the doctrinal principles of the Lutheran faith.
Auschwitz: A Polish town notorious as the location of
a Nazi extermination camp during World War II, where millions of individuals,
primarily Jews, were systematically murdered between 1940 and 1945.
Axis Powers: A term referring to the coalition of
nations, initially Germany and Italy (forming the Rome-Berlin Axis), later
joined by Japan (Tripartite Pact) and others like Hungary, Romania, and
Bulgaria, during World War II.
B.
Battle of Britain: The prolonged air campaign during
World War II, primarily waged by the German Luftwaffe against Britain, lasting
from July to October 1940. It aimed to gain air superiority over the British
Royal Air Force (RAF) and ultimately control the skies before a potential
invasion.
Bay of Pigs: An unsuccessful attempt by Cuban exiles,
backed by the United States, to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime by invading
Cuba's Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961. The invasion failed, resulting in
embarrassment for the United States.
Beehive hut: A type of ancient stone hut found in
Ireland, typically associated with early Christian or prehistoric eras. These
huts were constructed using stone and often had a beehive-shaped appearance.
Berlin Airlift: A massive humanitarian operation
conducted by Western Allies (primarily the United States and Britain) to
deliver supplies to West Berlin after the Soviet Union blockaded all land
access to the city between 1948 and 1949.
Berlin Wall: A physical barrier that divided East
Berlin (controlled by the Soviet Union) and West Berlin (controlled by Western
Allies) from 1961 to 1989. Its construction began in 1961 and it was dismantled
following the fall of the Communist regime in East Germany.
Black Death: A devastating bubonic plague pandemic
that swept through Europe between 1347 and 1352, causing widespread death and
significant social and economic disruptions.
Black and Tans: A British auxiliary force recruited
to quell Irish nationalists during the Irish War of Independence (1920-1921).
They were notorious for their brutal tactics.
Blood sacrifice: The concept that individuals or
groups were willing to give their lives for the betterment or future success of
a cause, often associated with Irish history and rebellion.
Blitzkrieg: A military strategy characterized by
rapid and overwhelming attacks, usually involving combined forces like air
power, tanks, and infantry, employed by the German military during World War
II.
Blitz: The period of intense bombing of British
cities by the German Luftwaffe during World War II, particularly in 1940 and
1941.
Bloody Sunday, 1920 and 1972: Separate tragic
incidents in Ireland. In 1920, it refers to a day of violence involving the IRA
and British forces resulting in multiple deaths. In 1972, it was a massacre in
Derry (Northern Ireland) where British soldiers shot and killed unarmed civilians
during a protest march.
Bias: A lack of objectivity or fairness in presenting
information, often swaying towards a particular perspective.
Biography: A written narrative of a person's life,
typically authored by someone else.
Boston Massacre: A deadly confrontation in 1770 in
Boston, where British soldiers killed several colonists during a clash.
Boston Tea Party: A protest by American colonists in
1773 against British taxation policies, symbolized by the dumping of tea into
the Boston Harbor.
Brehon Laws: Ancient legal codes of early Ireland,
named after the brehons (judges) who administered them.
Bronze Age: A prehistoric period marked by the use of
bronze for tools and weapons.
C.
Cross-Checking: The practice of verifying or
confirming information by comparing it with multiple sources.
Census: An official count or survey of a population,
typically collecting demographic and social data.
Chronology: The arrangement of events in the order
they occurred, forming a timeline.
Cite: To reference or mention sources of information
or evidence used to support a statement or argument.
Corbelled roof: A roofing structure built by layering
stones that gradually overlap, creating a dome-shaped ceiling.
Conservation: The careful preservation and protection
of historic artifacts or objects to prevent deterioration or decay.
Citizens: Individuals who possess legal rights and
privileges within a particular political or social system.
Conferrario: A Roman wedding ceremony or marriage
ritual.
Charter: A formal document or contract granting
specific rights, freedoms, or privileges, often issued by a monarch or
governing authority.
Curfew: A regulation requiring people to be indoors
and off the streets during specific hours.
Christendom: Refers to the collective domain or realm
of Christian countries or influence.
Compass: A navigational instrument used for
determining direction, particularly finding north, and vital in navigation.
Caravel: A type of ship historically used for
long-distance exploration, featuring a sturdy hull and sails capable of sailing
in various wind conditions.
Conquistadores: Spanish conquerors or explorers who
colonized and subjugated native peoples in the Americas during the Age of
Exploration.
Colonization: The act of establishing control over a
territory, often by settling individuals from another region or country in that
area.
Columbian Exchange: The exchange of goods, animals,
crops, and diseases between the Old World (Europe) and the New World (the
Americas) after Christopher Columbus's voyages.
Courts of Inquisition: Ecclesiastical courts set up
by the Catholic Church during the Counter-Reformation to identify and try
individuals accused of heresy.
Constitution: A set of fundamental principles or laws
that establish the framework for governance and delineate the powers and rights
of individuals and the government.
Chief Secretary: A governmental position overseeing
affairs, often associated with the administration of Ireland during historical
periods.
Catholic Emancipation: The movement advocating for
the legal rights and freedoms of Catholics, including the right to participate
in political institutions such as parliament.
Commons: An open area of land typically used for
grazing livestock, often part of the manor in medieval times.
Constitutional nationalists: Individuals or groups
seeking the restoration of a parliament in Ireland through legal and political
means.
Cuddy or cuid oiche: A historical practice in
Medieval Ireland where minor chiefs were obligated to host and entertain the
Chieftain and their entourage multiple times a year.
D.
Dendrochronology: A method of dating that relies on
analyzing the unique growth patterns found in tree rings to determine the age
of wooden artifacts or structures.
Druid: A spiritual figure and scholar in
pre-Christian Celtic societies, responsible for religious rituals, knowledge,
and often acting as advisors or intermediaries.
Domus: A term denoting the large and luxurious house
of a wealthy or influential individual, such as a patrician, in Ancient Rome.
Dole: A provision of free grain or sustenance
provided to the poor or plebeians in Ancient Rome as a form of welfare or
charity.
Dominion: A self-governing entity within the British
Empire that retains autonomy while recognizing the British monarch as the
symbolic head of state.
Dictator: An individual who seizes absolute control
over a country, often ruling by force and suppressing opposition, frequently
through the use of propaganda and fear tactics.
Dogfight: A term used to describe aerial combat
between fighter aircraft in close proximity, engaging in intense maneuvers and
tactics.
Dehumanization: The act or process of treating
individuals or groups in a manner that disregards their human qualities, often
leading to mistreatment or oppression.
Democracy: A system of governance where citizens have
the power to elect representatives, multiple political parties exist, and civil
liberties such as free speech and media are protected.
E.
Exaggeration: The act of representing something as
greater or lesser in degree or size than it actually is, often for emphasis or
effect.
Excavation: The systematic digging and exploration
carried out by archaeologists to uncover and study artifacts or remnants of
past civilizations buried beneath the ground.
Enlightenment: An intellectual and philosophical
movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, science, and individualism
over tradition and authority.
Enclosure: The consolidation and fencing-off of land
holdings into distinct fields or plots, a practice prevalent in the historical
reorganization of agricultural lands.
Eviction: The act of forcibly removing individuals or
families from their homes or properties, often due to legal or financial
reasons.
Ecumenism: Efforts aimed at fostering unity,
cooperation, and understanding among different Christian denominations or
churches globally.
Evacuation: The organized relocation of people,
especially civilians, from urban areas to safer locations, commonly observed
during times of conflict or natural disasters.
Einsatzgruppen: Special mobile units of Nazi Germany
tasked with executing mass killings, particularly targeting perceived enemies
in Eastern Europe.
European Parliament: An institution representing the
citizens of the European Union, whose members have been directly elected since
1979.
F.
Fallow: The practice of leaving a field uncultivated
for a specific period, allowing it to recover fertility or regain nutrients.
Feudalism: A social and economic system of land
ownership and obligations prevailing in medieval Europe, involving lords
granting land to vassals in exchange for loyalty and services.
Friars: Members of certain religious orders, such as
the Franciscans or Dominicans, who lived among communities and were devoted to
preaching, charity, and tending to the sick and poor.
Fresco: A painting technique where pigments are
applied to wet plaster, used notably in Renaissance art for creating murals and
decorative artworks.
Federal Republic: A form of government where power is
divided between a central authority and constituent regions or states, common
in federations like the United States.
Feminism: The advocacy for equal rights,
opportunities, and social, economic, and political equality between men and
women.
Five-year plan: A series of targets and policies
designed to guide economic and social development over a five-year period,
notably utilized in the Soviet Union under Stalin's rule.
Fascism: A totalitarian form of government
characterized by dictatorial power, extreme nationalism, and suppression of
opposition, as seen in regimes led by figures such as Hitler, Mussolini, and
Franco.
The Final Solution: The Nazi regime's systematic plan
and execution to exterminate the Jewish population in Europe during World War
II.
Freedom of movement: The absence of restrictions on
the movement of people, goods, services, and capital among member states of the
European Union.
G.
Geophysical survey: A method of examining the
subsurface features of the earth using various scientific tools and techniques,
aiding in archaeological investigations.
Grave goods: Valuable items or objects buried
alongside deceased individuals, believed to be for use in the afterlife or as
offerings.
Gladiators: Individuals, often slaves or prisoners,
trained for combat and entertainment purposes, fighting in arenas such as
amphitheaters.
Guild: An association or organization comprising
individuals working in the same trade or craft, typically formed to protect
common interests or standards.
Gaelic-Irish: Referring to the Gaelic-speaking Irish
population, often associated with adherence to traditional Brehon laws and
customs.
Guerrilla warfare: A strategy involving small,
mobile, and unconventional tactics by irregular combatants, such as ambushes
and hit-and-run attacks.
Gerrymandering: The manipulation or redrawing of
electoral district boundaries to favor a particular political party or group.
Glimmer men: Inspectors or officials tasked with
monitoring and enforcing regulations, particularly related to fuel usage or
rationing in towns or cities.
Gulags: Forced labor camps in the Soviet Union,
notorious for their harsh conditions and use as a means of punishment for
political dissidents and prisoners.
Gestapo: The secret police force of Nazi Germany,
responsible for espionage, intelligence, and suppressing dissent through
surveillance and terror tactics.
Genocide: The deliberate and systematic extermination
or destruction of an entire ethnic, racial, religious, or national group.
Ghetto: A part of a city, often a segregated area,
where a particular ethnic or minority group resides, historically associated
with social, legal, or economic pressures.
Glasnost: A policy introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in
the Soviet Union aimed at increasing political openness, allowing more freedom
of speech and relaxing censorship.
H.
History: The academic discipline that studies and
interprets past events, cultures, societies, and human activities.
Historical consciousness: The awareness and
understanding of historical events and their impact on present and future
perspectives, linking the past, present, and future.
Historian: A person who researches, analyzes, and
writes about historical events, societies, and cultures.
Handling Box: A container housing replicas or copies
of artifacts, allowing people to handle and examine them without risking damage
to the original items.
Hunter-gatherer: An ancient or traditional lifestyle
involving hunting, fishing, and foraging for food rather than agricultural
practices.
High Cross: A tall, free-standing stone cross, often
adorned with intricate carvings depicting religious or biblical scenes,
commonly found in Celtic and Christian monuments.
Humanism: A philosophical and ethical stance
emphasizing the value and agency of human beings, focusing on human
experiences, capabilities, and potential.
Hunger strike: A form of protest or resistance where
individuals refuse food until their demands or grievances are met.
I.
Iron Age: A historical period characterized by the
widespread use of iron for tools, weapons, and implements, marking a
technological advancement from the Bronze Age.
Insulae: Apartment blocks or multi-story buildings
inhabited by common people, particularly plebeians, in ancient Rome.
Irish diaspora:
The dispersion or migration of Irish people and their
descendants across various parts of the world, often due to historical events
like famine, political upheavals, or economic opportunities.
Irish nationalist:
An individual who believes in and advocates for the idea
that the Irish people constitute a distinct nation, often supporting political
or social movements aimed at asserting Irish independence or national identity.
Irregulars:
Members of the IRA (Irish Republican Army) who opposed the
Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which led to the establishment of the Irish Free
State. They rejected the treaty due to its terms regarding Irish sovereignty
and the partition of Ireland.
Internment:
The practice of detaining and confining individuals without
trial or formal charges, often carried out for political reasons or during
times of conflict or unrest.
J.
Jousting: A medieval sport or competition where two
knights, typically on horseback, charge at each other with lances, attempting
to unseat their opponent or break their lance.
K.
Knights: Noble warriors who fought on horseback and
were bound by a code of chivalry, often associated with defending their lord or
king, engaging in battles, and participating in tournaments.
King: A ruler or monarch who holds power over a
kingdom or territory, often governing with the support of nobles and
controlling military forces.
L.
Longship: A type of Viking ship designed for
navigating both open seas and rivers, known for its shallow draft and ability
to travel long distances.
Longphort: A Viking encampment near water bodies
utilized as a strategic base for raids and expeditions.
Legionaries: Professional Roman soldiers or
infantrymen who served in the Roman legions.
Log and line: A method used to measure a ship's speed
in knots by releasing a knotted rope at regular intervals.
Loyal Irish: Native Irish individuals who remained
loyal or pledged allegiance to the English during conflicts or wars such as the
Nine Years' War.
Large farmers: Farmers who leased or rented more than
30 acres of land for cultivation.
Laissez-faire: An economic ideology suggesting that
the government should have minimal intervention in the economy, allowing market
forces to regulate themselves.
Loyalists: Unionists in Great Britain and Ireland who
were supportive, sometimes through paramilitary means, of maintaining the union
established by the Act of Union in 1800.
Lebensraum: A term used by the Nazis to refer to the
desired territorial expansion for the ethnic German population, justifying
aggressive territorial acquisitions.
M.
Museum: A place where artifacts, historical objects,
and artworks are exhibited and preserved for public viewing and education.
Mesolithic: The middle period of the Stone Age,
characterized by the development of more advanced tools and hunting techniques.
Megalith: A large and often monumental stone used in
ancient structures or monuments.
Monastery: A residence or complex where a community
of monks or nuns live together, dedicated to a religious way of life.
Monk: A man who has taken vows and devotes his life
to religious practices and communal living in a monastery.
Manuscript: A handwritten document or book, often
containing religious texts, historical accounts, or literary works.
Masterpiece: A work of exceptional quality or skill
submitted to a guild for assessment as a qualification for becoming a master
craftsman.
Movable type printing press: A machine that uses
individual metal letters assembled into words, coated with ink, and pressed
onto paper, revolutionizing the process of printing.
Militias: Part-time military forces, often composed
of citizens or volunteers, mobilized during times of conflict or emergency.
Monarch: A ruler, often a king or queen, who holds
supreme authority over a nation or territory, traditionally believed to have
divine rights to rule.
Maginot Line: A series of French defensive
fortifications constructed along the French-German border after World War I,
aimed at preventing invasion, although it ultimately proved ineffective during
World War II.
N.
Neolithic: The New Stone Age, characterized by the
development of farming and agriculture. In Ireland, it was a period marked by
the arrival of farmers.
Nomadic: Refers to people or communities that
frequently move from one place to another, often without a permanent
settlement.
Nepotism: The practice of favoring or appointing
relatives, especially in job positions, without considering their
qualifications or merit.
Norfolk System: A four-crop rotation cycle in
agriculture involving wheat, turnips, oats, barley, and the cultivation of
grass over subsequent years.
No Man’s Land: The area of land between the opposing
trenches of two enemy forces, often characterized by danger and uncontrolled
territory.
O.
Ogham: An ancient Celtic form of writing found on
boundary stones, consisting of lines and notches carved into stone.
P.
Pagan: An individual who adheres to polytheistic
religious beliefs, often involving worship of multiple gods, frequently
centered around nature or natural elements.
Patricians: The wealthy and powerful families in
ancient Rome who held political and social influence.
Paramilitary force: An unofficial, often
non-governmental, military-style organization composed of civilians trained and
organized for military operations.
Partition: The division or separation of a region or
country, in this case, referring to the division of Ireland into two distinct
states, North and South.
Prehistory: The period of time before written records
or documentation was commonly used to chronicle historical events.
Primary source: A direct or firsthand source of
information from the time of an event, offering an original account of what
occurred.
Propaganda: Information or material designed to
influence public opinion, often biased and employing emotional appeals to shape
attitudes and beliefs.
Plagiarism: The act of using someone else's work,
ideas, or creations without proper attribution or acknowledgment, passing them
off as one's own.
Plebeians: The lower-class citizens in ancient Rome,
often comprising the majority of the population and typically less privileged.
Passage tomb: A burial structure featuring a narrow
passage leading to one or more chambers, constructed using large stones and
covered with earth or stones.
Pollen analysis: A method used by archaeologists to
study pollen remains in order to understand the vegetation or plants present
during a particular historical period.
Polytheist: Someone who believes in or worships
multiple deities or gods.
Peasants: Individuals who worked on the land owned by
a lord; serfs were those who were legally bound to the landowner, while freemen
had more freedom but still had financial obligations.
Patron: A wealthy individual who supports and
commissions artists or artisans to create artwork.
Perspective: A technique in Renaissance art that
creates depth and realism by employing three-dimensional representations in
paintings.
Protestant: Initially, a supporter of reforms within
the Catholic Church; later, members of the denominations that emerged from the
Protestant Reformation.
Pluralism: The practice of holding multiple church
positions or jobs simultaneously.
Predestination: The belief, particularly in
Presbyterianism, that God has already predetermined whether an individual will
attain salvation before their birth.
Plantations: Confiscated Irish land that was
redistributed, sold, or rented to loyal English settlers.
Planters: The new settlers who arrived and settled on
confiscated land during the plantation period in Ireland.
Penal laws: Laws enacted to suppress the rights and
status of Catholics in Ireland during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Potato blight: A fungus that spreads in damp
conditions, causing the destruction of potato crops.
Parliamentary obstruction: Deliberate interference
with the progress of legislation in parliament, often through tactics such as
prolonged speeches to delay the passage of laws.
Political agitation: Encouraging people to form local
groups and demand better treatment or rights through means such as rent refusal
or non-cooperation with landlords.
Perestroika: A policy introduced by Gorbachev in the
Soviet Union to reform and open up the Soviet economy by allowing some private
ownership of businesses and land.
Q.
Quadrant astrolabe: Instruments used for determining
a ship's latitude by observing the position of stars and the sun.
R.
Reinterpretation: To perceive or understand something
in a new or different way, often leading to a revised understanding or
interpretation.
Refectory: The hall within a monastery where monks
gather to eat their meals.
Round tower: A bell tower within a monastery that
served as a safe refuge for people and treasures in times of attack.
Republic: A form of government where the ruling power
lies with elected representatives or the public, typically without a monarchy.
Renaissance: A historical period characterized by
significant advancements in art, literature, and science, signifying a rebirth
or renewal.
Revolution: A rapid and fundamental transformation or
change in society, politics, technology, or the economy.
Radical Nationalists: Individuals advocating complete
independence from Britain and willing to resort to force if necessary to
achieve this goal.
Reprisal: An act of retaliation against local
civilians in response to attacks on British military personnel.
Regular: Supporters of the Treaty of 1921 within the
IRA, also known as the Free State Army.
Right to self-determination: The entitlement of a
people or nation, sharing common language and culture, to govern themselves
independently.
Reparations: Compensation payments paid by the losing
side to the victors following a war.
Rule by decree: The authority to create laws without
parliamentary approval.
S.
Source: Anything providing information about past
events, people, or places.
Secondary Source: Information or records created
after an event occurred, such as books or paintings.
Stratigraphy: A dating method based on the depth at
which artifacts were discovered.
Smelting: The process of melting metal at high
temperatures to separate it from the ore.
Scriptorium: A monastery's room where manuscripts
were written and illustrated.
Stola: A long dress popular in ancient Rome.
Sfumato: A painting technique creating a smoky effect
by blurring lines and colors, characteristic of Renaissance art.
Sonnet: A fourteen-line rhyming poem form popular
during the Renaissance.
Slavery triangle: The triangular trade route
involving the transportation of slaves to the Americas, exchange of American
goods to Europe, and return to Africa for the cycle to continue.
Simony: The buying or selling of religious positions.
Sale of Indulgences: The practice of selling prayers
to shorten the time spent in purgatory.
Succession: The passing of land or property from
father to son.
Surrender And Regrant: A process where Gaelic Irish
and Old English rulers surrendered their lands to Henry VIII, receiving an
English title in return.
Servitors: English or Scottish soldiers who fought
for the crown.
Sans-culottes: The impoverished Parisian population
that influenced radical actions during the French Revolution.
Sectarianism: Conflict and hostility based on
religious differences.
Sovereignty: A country's independent authority and
power.
Satellite states: Eastern European countries under
the control of Moscow, such as Lithuania, Latvia, and Poland.
Superpowers: The most dominant and influential
countries in the world after World War II, including the Soviet Union and the
United States.
Scorched-earth: A military strategy involving the
destruction of anything useful to the enemy while moving through an area.
Sudetenland: The predominantly German-speaking
regions of Czechoslovakia.
Show trial: A staged trial conducted publicly to
influence public opinion.
Suffrage: The movement advocating for voting rights;
specifically, the campaign for women's right to vote, led by suffragettes.
T.
Tactile source: A physical source that can be touched
and examined for historical or archaeological study.
Test trench: A sample excavation or hole dug in an
archaeological site to evaluate its potential significance before conducting a
full-scale excavation.
Tehran Conference: A meeting held between British,
Soviet, and US leaders in 1943 (also known as the Big Three) where they agreed
on military strategies and discussed the formation of the United Nations.
Tenement: A building divided into separate rooms or
apartments, usually accommodating numerous families or individuals.
Tennis Court Oath: The pledge made by members of the
Third Estate during the French Revolution in 1789, declaring themselves as the
National Assembly and vowing not to disband until a constitution was
established.
Terrorism: The use of violence or intimidation for
political, ideological, or social goals by instilling fear in a population.
Test Ban Treaty: An agreement among several nations,
including the Soviet Union, the United States, and Britain, to cease most
nuclear weapons tests.
Tet Offensive: A series of attacks launched by North
Vietnamese forces and Viet Cong troops in South Vietnam during the Tet festival
in 1968, resulting in significant casualties on both sides and impacting the
course of the Vietnam War.
Third Reich: The official name for Nazi Germany
between 1933 and 1945, denoting the third empire in German history (the first
being the Holy Roman Empire and the second the German Empire).
Tithe: A payment of one-tenth of a person's annual
income, often to the church as a form of tax or offering.
Treaty of Tordesillas: An agreement signed in 1494
between Spain and Portugal, mediated by Pope Alexander VI, to divide newly
discovered lands between them.
Townshend Acts: A series of British legislations in
1767 imposing taxes on American colonies to raise revenue for colonial
governance, including taxes on paper, lead, glass, and tea.
Trent, Council of: A council held by the Roman
Catholic Church from 1545 to 1563, which led to the Counter-Reformation,
clarifying Catholic doctrines and rejecting concessions to the Protestants.
Truman Doctrine: A US foreign policy principle under
President Truman that pledged support for democratic countries threatened by
foreign influence or domination.
U.
U-boat: German submarines used during WWI and WWII
that posed a significant threat to Allied shipping.
Undertakers: Individuals who agreed to Anglicize the
Gaelic Irish in exchange for land during the Ulster Plantation.
Union, Acts of: Legislation uniting England and Wales
in 1536, England and Scotland in 1707, and Britain and Ireland in 1800.
United Irishmen: A society formed in 1791 advocating
parliamentary and religious reform for an independent Irish parliament and
religious equality, responsible for the 1798 rebellion.
United Nations: An international organization
established in 1945 to foster global cooperation and maintain peace and
security.
Unionist: An individual who supports the idea of
Ireland remaining part of the United Kingdom.
V.
V1 and V2 rockets: Vengeance weapons developed and
deployed by Nazi Germany toward the end of World War II.
Valley Forge: The site where George Washington's
Continental Army camped during the winter of 1777-1778 during the American
Revolutionary War.
Vandals: A Germanic tribe that attacked the Roman
Empire in the 5th century.
Vatican Council, Second: A gathering of the Roman
Catholic Church from 1962 to 1965 convened by Pope John XXIII to renew
Christian faith and connect the church with ordinary people.
Vendée, Wars of the: Counter-revolutionary uprisings
by the peasantry in the Vendée district of Western France from 1793 to 1796 in
response to Maximilian Robespierre's attacks on the Roman Catholic Church.
Vernacular: The native language spoken by people in
their region or country.
Versailles, Treaty of: A peace agreement signed in
1919, concluding World War I.
Vichy France: A period from 1940 to 1945 in France
divided into two zones, one occupied by Germany and the other nominally under
French control.
Viet Cong: The nickname for the Vietnamese communist
guerrillas that fought against the United States during the Vietnam War between
1955 and 1975.
W.
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: A resistance effort by Jews
in 1943 against forced deportations from Warsaw to the Treblinka extermination
camp.
Warsaw Pact: A defensive alliance formed by the
Soviet Union and its communist allies in Eastern Europe, including Albania,
Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany, in 1955 in opposition to NATO.
Weimar Republic: The informal name for the Republic
of Germany between 1919 and 1933.
X.
XYZ Affair: A diplomatic incident between the United
States and France from 1797 to 1798.
Y.
Yalta Conference: A meeting of allied leaders during
World War II in 1945 to discuss post-war strategies and agreements.
Yorktown, Siege of: The final major military campaign
of the American Revolution in 1781, resulting in the surrender of Lord
Cornwallis and his British troops to George Washington and French forces.
Z.
Zinoviev letter: A forged document allegedly signed
by Bolshevik Grigori Zinoview to discredit the British Labour party in 1924.